A multinational company maximises its competitive advantage by Essay - 1

A multinational company maximises its competitive advantage by controlling its own supply chain. Discuss - Essay Example Most numbers of the MNCs in the present business environment are likely to strengthen along with build wide network of their supply chain strategies in order to attain superior competitive position (Costinot, Vogel & Wang, 2011). With regard to the field of governance, the supply chain mechanisms that implement by the MNCs are often incorporated with complex systems due to the prevalence of different structure along with power proportion existing between the business partners. The organisations such as McDonald’s, Wal-Mart and Nestle S. A. among others are highly inclined with maintaining strong supply chain governance that enables them to proactively perform range of business operations across the global subsidiaries. In relation to increase the efficiency along with the business operations, organisations are significantly influenced by the aspect of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). According to the present increasing growth of globalisation, FDI portfolios have major bearing upon the competitive position of the MNCs. FDI has long been identified as an essential aspect for the countries, facilitating them to stabilise their respective economic position. The development of FDI can only be made through the accession of MNCs into respective business markets. The integration of MNCs generally enables the countries to obtain substantial direct investment and also radically develop their commodity along with technical trade facilities (Qin, 2011). In this context, the theories associated with the efficiency of the firms have greater influence regarding the success of an organisation (Kusluvan, 1998).Based on the competitive scenario of the modern business environment, the primary objective of this essay is to demonstrate an in-depth understanding about the conventional theories associated with the major attributes that can be observed to remain in an unconventional SCM process. The essay therefore, tends to critically assess and justify the importance of an e ffective set of SCM process along with its key roles that further lead organisations to accomplish greater competitive advantage. 2. Discussion 2.1 Theories of the Firms With respect to the unconventional changes along with rapid development of SCM strategies made by the global organisations, it is widely accepted that strategies are generally developed in order to attain long-term sustainability in the competitive market. A few of the major theories associated with firms’ long-term sustainability have been briefly demonstrated in the following discussion. Coase Theorem The concerns associated with building interpersonal relationship regarding the individual efficacy creeps through taking into concern the conventional theorem ‘The Problem of Social Cost’, which developed by Ronald H. Coase. In relation to Coase theorem, the issues associated with impossibility in terms of making scientific comparison of interpersonal individual efficacy can be considered as one o f the problems of social cost. In order to effectively deal with the problems of social cost, the Coase theorem and its disciples play an essential role for the modern entrepreneurs to reduce optimum influence of externalities such as air or noise pollution (North, 1992). The Coase theorem of the firms tends to define economic efficiency concerning economic allocation with the

Human Resource Plan and Communication Plan in project management Assignment

Human Resource Plan and Communication Plan in project management - Assignment Example GM will make sure that the department heads work effectively and ensure quality in their department. In order for an individual to qualify for this position, he or she must have a Masters degree in management with five years working in management level. QM, TM, and DCM will be responsible for making sure that their department work effectively and ensure quality. They will manage workers in their departments. The managers will have a bachelor degree in relevant field accompanied by three years experience. In the organization, I will be communicating with the managers from each department. The managers will be giving out detailed information about their departments. They will also provide information concerning the challenges faced in each department. The information provided by managers will be used to make improvement by solving problems faced in each department. I will then communicate with the directors about the information presented by the managers. I will go through the presentations and approve the important and useful information before handing it to the managers. After the directors approve my requested I will then present the approval to the managers for implementation. I will be communicating with the managers to make sure that the suggested improvements have been implemented (Bohlander George, Morris Shad and Snell Scott 78). I will be communicating with the managers on daily basis. Communication with the directors will be done on weekly basis. Managers must send an email explaining on the progress of their departments on daily basis. The managers will also present the problems been faced in their organization formally on weekly basis. Monthly meetings will be held in order to have an information discussion with all departments (Bohlander George, Morris Shad and Snell Scott 60). The required information must be communicated by the required department in due

Mongols Conquest Essay Example for Free

Mongols Conquest Essay The Mongols conquest in the regions of China and the Middle East had significant similarities and differences in their political and economic aspects. In china the Mongols rule was called Yuan Dynasty and in the Middle East it was called the Ilkhanate of Persia. There are many similarities and differences between China and the Middle East under the ruling of the Mongols, Politically and economically. Politically some differences are how the Mongols inhabited each of the areas as well as how they went about with religious rights. Economically some similarities are that they encouraged long distance trade, they improved roads, as well as they spread the disease throughout all these regions. Politically the differences are how they inhabited each area. One of the main differences is that the Mongols would normally invade those in areas in which were left under native rule except for China. In the 13th century around 1211-1214 the Mongols invaded China. They put restrictions on their rules but tried to keep the culture as traditional going as much as possible. But they did make a clear path from Europe to China known as the Silk Road. In The Middle east there ruler of the realm of Persia went to war with the Caliphs 1255, by 1258 the capture Baghdad and Iraq and killed everyone there instead of building up there empire among the people like in china the totally took out a most of the population. Along with the regulations they put on china came the difference of religion in China they convert to Islam, Oman Catholicism, but many other religions were tolerated in china and also Buddhism was one religion that survived all through the Mongol rule. But in the Middle East unlike China they were ruled under Ilkhanate of Persia and ran under the religion of Hulegu. Economically, there were many similarities between the Middle East and China. Both area encouraged long distance trade. This boosted the economy, since the Mongols were Nomadic they cannot increase money very well so they imperialized to increase their wealth. In China raw goods, technology, ideas, and of course gun powder were all key trade items for the Mongols. Gunpowder is what put the Mongols more on top. Another Similarity is that they fixing irrigation and plumbing as well as improving roads the irrigation and plumbing were for cleanliness but improving roads as well as for major communications throughout the world. Another Major thing is that the Mongols spread the plague and other diseases throughout both regions because the trade routes were filthy the disease spread through rat bites they came in with the flees as well but wiping out the Mongols was the lead poising which wiped them all out. There are many similarities and differences between China and the Middle East under Mongol rulings, politically and economically. Politically some differences are how the Mongols inhabited these areas as well as how they dealt with religious rights. Economically, some similarities are that they encouraged, long distance trade, they improved roads, as well as spreading disease throughout both these areas. This shows that different people living under the same ruler are always ruled a little differently but disease wiped everyone out in the end.

Economic Impact of Pollution: Article Analysis

Economic Impact of Pollution: Article Analysis Luis Andre Talavera Nunez CONTEMPORARY ECONOMIC ANALYSIS An analysis of Peter Cai’s article: â€Å"Iron ore the victim in Beijings smog crackdown in the Business† Published the 26th of February – 2015 in the website businessspectator.com.au EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Peter Cai’s article analyses the economic impact of the pollution produced by the steel factories in China and their repercussion in the steel market and the iron ore prices. The article takes as an example the city of Hebei, one of the most important steel producer centres of China, which suffers one of the most critical pollution levels of its history. The province’s strategic location close to Beijing, the Chinese capital is a contributor factor to the increment of smog in the metropolitan area. The social pressure that arises from this issue is forcing the government to take drastic decisions with potential socio-economic impacts. New environmental standards were created in order to regulate the emissions. The new policies have the power to shut down any factory that does not meet the minimum standards. This is creating a lot of pressure on the industry and forcing the steel makers to reduce output and, in some cases, to update their assets. This new policies come in line with the Chinese economy slow down and the reduction of demand for the steel and its main resource, the iron ore. This has generated a crisis in the steel manufacturing industry that has seen a reduction of revenue and an increase of the operational cost in the last year. There is a potential risk of massive plants shut downs due to an important number of the steel makers won’t be able to afford the high cost that an update represents. This is also a consequence of poor government regulations during the economic boom that did not stimulate the companies to reinvest the capital in new and cleaner technologies when the revenue was higher. The social pressure has forced the government to take strong policies orientated to reduce the steel production capacity with the aim to minimize and control the toxic emissions. This represents a massive economic impact for the government which will be affected by lower tax revenue and potential increase of unemployment. INTRODUCTION The Hebei province, well known as the biggest steel producer in China and the second worldwide, contributor of the 22.5 percent of the national steel output is facing a critical time. The reports demonstrate a fall of 0.6 percent from the total steel production in 2014 in comparison to the 2013 figures and China’s total production is expected to drop 1.07% to 814 million tonnes by 2015. (Stanway, 2015; the Australian, 2015). The main reason for this crisis is the reduction in demand for the Chinese market and the new environmental policies that restrict the operation of plants that exceed the new emission standards (Li 2013). This environmental issue has situated the province within the top 10 most contaminated cities in China and has been affected people’s health critically reducing life expectancy by five years (Cai P., 2015; Stanway, 2015). As a consequence, there is a strong social pressure that request fast solutions to a problem that seems not to have a sustainabl e solution in the short term. This article address the following issues: The economic impact of the reduction of steel production’s output in the province of Hebei and its repercussion on the steel and iron prices in the short and medium term. The impact of the new environmental policies that force the shutdown of steel’s factories that don’t meet the minimum emission standards. Reduction in the demand of steel, impact on the government revenue and increment in the unemployment rate. ECONOMIC THEORIES One of the most important parts of the article is the dynamic of the Chinese steel market and its influence in the iron global supply. In the last decade the Chinese demand and supply for steel have been growing consistently driven by the strong urbanization process (World Steel Association 2014). However, this figure is changing rapidly due to China’s growth slowdown and a shift towards an economic model orientated to consumption and less steel dependent. The performance indicators demonstrate that the Chinese steel markets not in shape (Serapio. 2014), face serious issues related to competitiveness, productivity, efficient logistics, infrastructure and technology. The chart below explains the relation between Supply and Demand during the last 7 years and the reduction in market growth as result of the deceleration. Figure 1 – Source: EYGM Limited. 2014. The effect of the reduction in steel demand has been reflected in lower steel prices as result of the existing excess of the capacity. The steel producers have no other option than become more competitive, orientating their efforts to improve productivity and reduce costs in order to maximize the profits. According Agrawal (EYGM Limited. 2014), this highly competitive scenario will lead to a flatter marginal cost curve along the productive sector, reducing the breach between the competitors. This means that any fluctuation in the market variables will affect most of the participants evenly. THE PARTICIPATION OF THE GOVERNMENT What is the position of the government? The Chinese government is facing two major issues. According Elliott (EYGM Limited. 2015), the two major contributor factors are the critical contamination levels in most of the major cities around the country as product of the poor regulation policy to the steel market and the socio economic pressure to maintain an industry that provides generous tax income and maintain low unemployment levels. As result of social pressure the government decided to apply new regulation policies with the aim to reduce the actual steel production capacity. The new industrial emission standards give the government the tools to shut down the plants that don’t meet the new environmental requirements (Jiabao, Li. 2013). The article mentions that the pollution reduction technologies are expensive and under the current steel prices and many of the current steel producers are not going to be able to afford the investment. This exemplifies a clear normative economic, where the government identify a problem and prescribe solutions based on facts. Un-employment is an additional impact that has to be managed by the government. According Cai’s article, â€Å"the new industrial policy could cost 200,000 direct jobs as well as another 400,000 indirect positions†. In the short term the chances of a rapid migration towards a cleaner and environmental friendly industry are almost impossible due to the economic situation that the China is facing at the moment.. Here is where the government must evaluate different tools like tax incentives in order to stimulate the migration to cleaner industries in the medium term. One fact that was not mentioned in the article is that the government possesses participation in some factories; these factories receive incentives that allow them to operate even in loss with the aim to maintain levels of employment. This creates a clear dead weight loss for the government (EYGM Limited. 2014). The government subsidies are illustrated in the graph below: Figure 2 – Deadweight loss of government subsidy in the steel market. P1 is the original market price for the steel and Q1 is the original demand. Pc is the price that the consumer pays after the subsidy whilst Ps is the real price including the subsidy. Qs is the quantity of steel produced as result of the subsidy, this represent inefficient production. The area highlighted in red represents the deadweight loss to that the society pays as product of the government subsidy. CONCLUSION Cai’s article highlights the complex situation that the Chinese steel market is facing these days, as well as, the economic, environmental and social repercussion of its reduction capacity and the roll of the government in the market regulation. The article makes reference to production figures that can be easily tracked and verified in diverse economic reports. There are two points that the article doesn’t cover in deep. The subsidies of the government to some steel makers and how this affects the supply and the effect of the Iron Ore price fluctuations in the Chinese steel market. It’s clear that the social pressure is changing the traditional political Chinese scenario, characterized by their authoritarian decision making at the moment to approve and put in practice government interest policies. The demand for a better air quality reflects a new scenario where the politicians are willing to listen and negotiate. The short term solution of shutting down factories that don’t meet the environmental standards is only a policy that can alleviate the current contamination but does not provide a sustainable solution to the underlying problems: Maintain the competitiveness of Chinese market under optimal environmental standards. Reduce unemployment and also guarantee the resources that the country required to continue growing sustainably. The priority in a long term is to promote the development of more environmental friendly industries that can produce the high end products that China will require in the future. However, this is a big risk considering the investment and time required to transform an industry that has been considered one of the most traditional and important in China. REFERENCES Cai, P. (2015). â€Å"Iron ore the victim in Beijing’s smog crackdown†. Business spectator. Retrieved from http://www.businessspectator.com.au/article/2015/2/26/china/iron-ore-victim-beijings-smog-crackdown. EY Limited (2014). â€Å"Global steel 2014, planning to profit from opportunity: preparing for future demand†. Retrieved from http://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/EY_-_Global_steel_2014/$FILE/EY-Global-steel-2014.pdf The Australian (2015). â€Å"China’s steel production to fall†. Retrieved from: http://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/mining-energy/chinas-steel-production-to-fall/story-e6frg9df-1227208363291 Serapio, Manolo. 2014 â€Å"China steel demand shrinks for first time in 14 years as slowdown stings†Ã‚  http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/09/25/us-china-steel-idUSKCN0HK0Z320140925 Stanway, David. 2015. â€Å"Steel output dips 0.6 pct in Chinas Hebei in 2014†Ã‚  http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/01/26/china-steel-hebei-idUSL4N0V51DK20150126 World Steel Association. 2014. â€Å"World Steel in figures 2014†Ã‚  http://www.worldsteel.org/dms/internetDocumentList/bookshop/World-Steel-in-Figures-2014/document/World%20Steel%20in%20Figures%202014%20Final.pdf EYGM Limited. 2015. â€Å"Global steel 2014 Planning to profi t from opportunity: preparing for future demand†Ã‚  http://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/EY_-_Global_steel_2014/$FILE/EY-Global-steel-2014.pdf Jiabao, Li. 2013 â€Å"Plant shutdowns likely as emission standards kick in†Ã‚  http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2013-03/15/content_16310734.htm American Economic Review. 1997  http://www.swlearning.com/ibc/hall/pdf/CH1a_hl.pdf

Customer relationships marketing Essay -- essays research papers

Literature Review The Evolving Sales and Marketing Landscape Marketing and business development professionals are confronting a rapidly different and changing business landscape. The traditional business model that was once the standard is now being transformed due to technology drivers that make advanced marketing and sales capabilities possible. The business model of yesterday supported mass marketing, mass production, and standardized cookie-cutter products and services. Enterprises will have fall behind the competition if they continue to rely and operate on this substandard model. Today, companies are re-engineering their operations and investing in enhanced IT infrastructures, which enable them to provide customized, personalized, information-rich products and services. The new objective for marketers and business developers involves understanding the needs of their clients and the markets that they serve. This new focus on providing customer value is redefining business proce sses. Professionals, who understand and anticipate this shift, are positioning themselves ahead of the competition. The Impact of Technology Enabled Business Processes There is no denying the effect that technology has had on the way we conduct business. In recent years, technology has begun to play a significantly larger role in all aspects of business, including sales and marketing. Business processes must be re-engineered to incorporate a pro-active strategy for using information and IT to build a competitive advantage over other organizations. In many instances, the functionality provided by sales and marketing technology only automates current processes. Therefore, it is imperative that processes are clearly defined and well proven. Automating a poorly understood or followed process usually results in failure. Technology must be used as an enabler to support an already sound sales and marketing strategy. Beyond automating sales and marketing capabilities, technology is now desi gned to provide professionals with a wealth of information about their company’s clients and the markets that they serve. Companies are now able to collect data about their customers that when analyzed and utilized properly, can result in a competitive advantage. Online shopping is a prime example. If a customer makes a purchase, then the transaction is completed and revenue is generated. However, if a... ...tomer profile based on data received from web registrations, surveys, as well as historical interactions. Information from client transactions can be used to determine customer preferences, needs, as well as activities or events the client has attended. This information can be used when making decisions on how to best optimize sales with that client in the future. The Architectural Components of a CRM To understand the structure of a CRM solution one must consider the business model it is designed to support. As mentioned previously, marketing and sales departments are increasingly relying on relationship marketing as a means to more effectively acquire and retain clients. In short, in order to say competitive, companies must operate based on a customer-centric business model. The Gartner Group predicts there is an 80% probability that by 2001, 70 percent of marketing applications will be entirely redesigned to focus on customers instead of products and redeployed to take advanta ge of emerging technologies. CRMs are at the forefront of emerging sales and marketing technologies, but there are many tools that contribute to this technologies vast functionality. Word Count: 2020

The Importance of Good Teacher-Student Relationships :: Education Teaching

The Importance of Good Teacher-Student Relationships What kind of relationship should a teacher and a student have in the classroom? The answer to this question may seem like an obvious one to many because a teacher and a student should always strive to have a good relationship in order to fare well in the classroom. In fact a good relationship creates many advantages between both teacher and student. For instance, a good relationship produces a good environment within the classroom, which can be a vital point to the success of both teacher and student. On the other hand, there is a flip side to the coin and that is a bad relationship. A bad relationship is where most of the problems come about in the classroom for both teacher and student. In the studies made by Cheney, she discovers that many students are no longer able to express and expand their minds because of the barriers placed upon them by their teachers and peers. Cheney wrote that one must conform to the teachers way of thinking because if you do not, you are taking a chance in receiving a bad grade. Even though one must compromise one's own opinion to satisfy a teacher, it is worth it because you only need to take that course once if you follow the style and beliefs of your teacher. Then again, if you donUt follow the pattern of your teacher, you may end up taking that same course many times until you finally surrender to the beliefs of your instructors. The teacherUs opinion in the classroom can be overpowering in many cases and it can make you forfeit your own opinion even if you feel that you are right. Such intimidating methods of the teacher can repress the creativity of the student. Therefore, making the student into a uniform thinker, which is not the best way in acquiring knowledge. As Socrates would say, one must ask questions and challenge them to find the truth (the truth being knowledge) and that is the best way to acquire knowledge. I have gone through a similar experience in courses that I have taken in college. For example, When I did assignments for a feminist class I only wrote what the teacher wanted to see and kept my own opinions to my self. Even though I felt that my explanation would be a better one, all I was thinking about was getting a decent grade and moving on, which was something I really regret because I felt that I did not learn anything. The Importance of Good Teacher-Student Relationships :: Education Teaching The Importance of Good Teacher-Student Relationships What kind of relationship should a teacher and a student have in the classroom? The answer to this question may seem like an obvious one to many because a teacher and a student should always strive to have a good relationship in order to fare well in the classroom. In fact a good relationship creates many advantages between both teacher and student. For instance, a good relationship produces a good environment within the classroom, which can be a vital point to the success of both teacher and student. On the other hand, there is a flip side to the coin and that is a bad relationship. A bad relationship is where most of the problems come about in the classroom for both teacher and student. In the studies made by Cheney, she discovers that many students are no longer able to express and expand their minds because of the barriers placed upon them by their teachers and peers. Cheney wrote that one must conform to the teachers way of thinking because if you do not, you are taking a chance in receiving a bad grade. Even though one must compromise one's own opinion to satisfy a teacher, it is worth it because you only need to take that course once if you follow the style and beliefs of your teacher. Then again, if you donUt follow the pattern of your teacher, you may end up taking that same course many times until you finally surrender to the beliefs of your instructors. The teacherUs opinion in the classroom can be overpowering in many cases and it can make you forfeit your own opinion even if you feel that you are right. Such intimidating methods of the teacher can repress the creativity of the student. Therefore, making the student into a uniform thinker, which is not the best way in acquiring knowledge. As Socrates would say, one must ask questions and challenge them to find the truth (the truth being knowledge) and that is the best way to acquire knowledge. I have gone through a similar experience in courses that I have taken in college. For example, When I did assignments for a feminist class I only wrote what the teacher wanted to see and kept my own opinions to my self. Even though I felt that my explanation would be a better one, all I was thinking about was getting a decent grade and moving on, which was something I really regret because I felt that I did not learn anything.

Literature review on contemporary HRD Essay

Critically discuss and evaluate current perspectives on the changing role and nature of training and learning in organisations and human resource development. This should include a critical appraisal of key theoretical perspectives on the strategic role of HRD within contemporary organisational contexts Within this submission, I have illustrated the changing role and nature of training and learning within context of a learning organisation. Training and learning in organisations. So what do we mean by training and learning within an organisation? One view is that it is about developing a learning organisation, an ‘organization that is continually expanding its capacity to create its future. For such an organization, it is not enough merely to survive, ‘Survival learning’ what is more often termed ‘adaptive learning’ is important, indeed it is necessary. But for a learning organization, ‘adaptive learning’ must be joined by ‘generative learning,’ learning that enhances our capacity to create’. Senge (1999:14) Further support for this ‘generative’ view is seen in Wick and Westley (1996) who take the perspective that a learning organisation should be seen against the backdrop of its culture. Arguing values, beliefs, feelings, artefacts, myths, symbols, metaphors’ form part of any approach taken by a learning organisation. It arguably impossible to clinically define what a learning organisation consists of in a generic form. By creating a learning organisation you create a learning climate, thus hopefully a training and learning culture. Senge takes the view that, what fundamentally will distinguish learning organizations from traditional authoritarian â€Å"controlling organizations† will be the ‘mastery of certain basic disciplines. That is why the â€Å"disciplines of the learning organization† are vital’. Senge (1999: 5). However, it is to be noted that Senge uses the word discipline to mean a set of practices rather than a rigid system of rules, which is often inferred understood in the modern use of the word. Going on to comment, ‘To practice a discipline is to be a lifelong learner. You never arrive; you spend your life mastering disciplines’. Senge (1999: 11) Futher confirming the view that, this area of management study is far from being a science, but he does present offer a few guiding principles in his best selling book, The Fifth Discipline, ‘Have realistic goals, challenge your assumptions, commit to a shared vision and that teamworking is good for you. We see here the dualistic approach of both the need for the organisation and the individual to become intrinsically involved in the concept. Although a popular view, others have felt that organisation learn in there own right, almost biologically. Schon for example sees organisations as, ‘repositories of knowledge’ independent of their members (Schon, 1983:242). There is a wide school of thought that learning organisations develop and are not imposed, ‘†¦as cultures develop and alter their expectations, (an example of which would include the demise of unions and the capitalist ideology of the Thatcher years) so must organisations change that employ within that culture.’ (Schon, 1983). Further cultural identities in terms of sector, product or organisations must also be taken into account, highlighted by the work of both Argyris (1960) and Hofstede (1994). One mistaken view is that the term a ‘learning organisation’ is a new concept. It is certainly true that as the world changes new approaches must be investigated to maintain both personal and organisational survival. However, the idea that organisations have only recently had to deal with changing situations, both operationally and strategically, is clearly absurd. Only the pace and scope of change in the last 50 years has brought the spotlight on organisations managing its human resource in a more effective manner. It remains a truism that it is not an argument about leaning and development, after all we have all learnt and development within any organisation we have been in contact with either consciously or subconsciously. The argument must surely be how we identify, focus and deliver that learning in an organisational context to produce value to the individual and therefore hopefully the organization. A view highlighted by Argyris and Schon (1974) Historically this point is confirmed, ‘We trained hard†¦ but it seemed that every time we were beginning to form up in teams we would be reorganised. I was to learn later in life that we tend to meet any new situation by reorganising†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Caius Petronius, AD 65. However, the key element of a learning organisation is that it is about people and how they learn, develop and ultimately (or hopefully) contribute to the organisation. The link with HRD is therefore both binding and key in determining how T&D takes place in an organisation. Yet we still come back to what is a learning organisation. One simple view that will form the basis of my assignment is, ‘A learning organisation can, in plain terms, be described as an organisation which anticipates changes in its environment by learning on a strategic level; deliberately aims at improving its ability for learning and which, in order to learn on a strategic level, makes use of the learning of all employees, therefore this employee learning is enhanced at all hierarchical levels. (Sambrook and Stewart, IDPM Paper 1999). Therefore, it can be argued that the development of a learning organisation the most important factor in the changing role of T&D within organisations. Human Resource Development (HRD) Having settled on a broad view of what a learning organisation is, fitting it within a HRD context can only be achieved if we understand what we mean by HRD. In a learning context, HRD has been described as, ‘Organised learning experiences in a definite time period to increase the possibility of improving job performance growth’. (Nadler and Nadler, 1990:1.3). However, HRD covers a much wider field, ‘HRD is the integrated use of training and development, career development, and organisation development to improve individual and organisational effectiveness. (McLagan and Suhadolnik, 1989:10). A further view, ‘HRD is a process of developing and/or unleashing human expertise through organisation development (OD) and personnel training and development (T&D) for the purpose of improving performance. Swanson (1998) confirms this view that HRD is about the relationship of individuals with the organisation in a learning environment. But surely, HRD can be defined more accurately? Presently there is no universal view or agreement on the theory or multiple theories that support HRD as a discipline. On one hand some have called for systems theory to serve as a unifying theory for HRD to access all useful theories as required (Gradous, (1989) and on the other hand many have proposed sets of principles in the forms of comparative lists of added value, products, processes, and expertise (Brethower, 1995). The alterative to having a sound theoretical and disciplinary base for the HRD profession is the present state of ‘rudderless random activity aggressively sponsored by a theoretical professional associations and greedy consultants’ (Micklethwait & Wooldridge, 1996; Swanson, 1997). This view, it is argued, is a short-term sell of perceived success without having a deep understanding of the key components of the concept. ‘For this reason, a discrete and logical set of theories as the foundation of HRD is proposed. It is comprised of psychological theory, economic theory, and systems theory’ (Passmore, 1997; Swanson, 1995, 1999). Economic theory is recognised as the primary force at the organisational level with the systems theory recognising the importance of direction, politics and purpose that could affect any organisational system. Psychological theory acknowledges human beings as a resource, whilst trying to understand the behavioural patterns that must be taken into account, opening the HRD function up to new ideas and concepts such as NLP and EQ. It is believed by Passmore, Swanson et al. that these three theories, more than any others, make up the modern view of HRD. Development of HRD Early incarnations of HRD concerned themselves with a personal management function, ‘Personal management function at an administrative level, independent of commercial realities, into a concept that has become central to the strategic and commercial success of the organisation.’ (Huczynski and Buchanan, 2001: 668) However, as organisations adapted to change and new ways of thinking so did its human resource function: 1964-70 – systematic approach to diagnosis of training 1968-75 – standardization training for job categories by industry. (Such as motor, construction and social work) Thorough off-job basic education for skilled occupations 1970-75 – systematic planning of training for all categories of employee 1974-80 – company contribution to training for young people and long-term unemployed to meet national needs 1979-90 – business-orientated training directed at improving organizational effectiveness (value added) 1988 – present – personal development with individualized plans for which each employee and their boss take responsibility. Sambrook & Stewart IDPM Paper (1999) The last of these observations highlights a move away from organisational directed learning, as it sees the individual start to take more control of their own development needs. Due to the differences in organisational needs, cultural context organisational structure and resources available, the concept of the individual taking more responsibility for their development is a significant shift away from earlier ideas. Additionally, there has been a shift in the last decade from organisations training to meet competence voids, towards a more learning environment that relies on experiential learning and self direction. It is argued, such an approached, does not limit itself to training, ‘†¦but stretched to facilitating and supporting learning processes within the organisation, with the aim to contribute to meaningful organisational learning processes. Sambrook & Stewart IDPM Paper (1999) This clearly has an impact on the concept of HRD and any approach it may take within an organisation. (cf. case study research by Tjepkema & Wognum, 1995). Once again, it can therefore be argued, that a key role of HRD is to create and/or maintain a learning organisational environment as the foundation to any training and learning within an organisation. Yet even with this backdrop, many commentators still take the view that HRD should be subject to tight quantitive justification, that HRD needs to demonstrate that their activities add value to the organisation which is their paymaster. (Walton 1999: 1). However, Walton falls short of believing that value is the only issue in developing a learning organisation through a HRD function. Yet there remains a broad body of support that does lean towards this view. Swanson and Arnold (1997) consider that HRD in an organisational context has no meaning unless the connection is made to performance. A point echoed, Welsh 1998 who contends, ‘An employer doesn’t teach for the sake of learning †¦ What are the rewards?’ (Welch, 1998). With Mayo adding softness to the argument by involving a learning process to the HRD list of ingredients, ‘there needs to be a systematic method of linking business goals with the learning process. Mayo 2001: 82 However, there remains a danger that the HRD function, however defined, becomes over indulgent, becoming the end rather than the means to add some value to the sponsoring organisation. Maybe it is this fear, which when added to high-level managerial naivety of modern HRD approaches, which has seen many a HRD organisation become the first casualty of any downsizing. But why has the evolution of HRD been necessary? Quite simply the world of people and the environments in which they work has changed. A decade ago, Peter Drucker anticipated this change when he said in The Age of Discontinuity. ‘Businessmen will have to learn to build and manage innovative organizations.’ Others continue to see change. Ansoff, a long-time student of business strategy, adds as he envisages organisations reducing its reliance on structure: ‘†¦ Structure will become a dynamic enabler of both change and unchange, the ultimate model of ‘organised chaos’. (Peters and Waterman Jr, 1995: 111) Thus asking the question, can HRD stand still in a world of chaos or will is need to develop further new strategies to protect its value to a given organisation? The world is changing and as long as the interpretation and subsequent management of the change is influenced by human organisations the HRD function, however loosely defined, will need to continually adapt if it is to both manage and influence organisational direction if it is find a place in this ever changing ‘chaos’. Strategic HRD With a change in the type of work being undertaken in the western economy over the last 50 years, less ‘dominated by labour-intensive, low-tech industries with semi-skilled operatives, to high-tech industries reliant on highly skilled knowledge workers in relatively short supply, individuals are now seen as the single most significant source of sustainable competitive advantage.’ Walton (1999: 85) The role of HRD has therefore needed to change to provide the level of support required from its parent organisation. The management, retention and developing of this organisational resource, ‘knowledge workers’,(Wilson 1999) has taken on greater importance at higher managerial levels. A reflection of this is the fact HRD/HRM in many large organisations plays a much more important role at boardroom level, contributing to the overall organisational strategy. But does a HRD manager sitting on the Board make HRD strategic? Walton (1999) argues that for HRD to become strategic is needs to be HRD with a holistic, long-term approach, that may or may not develop a strategic awareness of company goals. He defines the term as one, ‘undertaken with full strategic intent, with an understanding how the initiative being undertaken adds to the coherence of the SHRD effort, congruent with an explicit learning philosophy incorporated into the overall organisation mission’ In short, for it to be strategic the HRD function needs to be holistic with a function to integrate and develop into the overall strategic management system. A little clarification comes from Burgoyne 1988, ‘†¦strategic approach has to be conscious and reflective; unplanned, interpersonal and functional experiences cannot be classified as strategic in organisational terms unless explicitly linked to implementation of corporate policy.’ However, Burgoyne does takes the view that such an approach should be linked to the hard systems of HRD such as planning, recruitment and selection strategies, feeling that a more objective approach is better implemented and quantified within an organisation. As Harrison (1997) points out, ‘despite the hype that surrounds a number of organisations where the planned development of people has made a notable contribution to the achievement of business goals†¦research has failed to reveal any significant connection between HRD and business strategy across the UK.’ An example of a SHRD approach was for many organisations the move toward individual responsibility for there own learning, ‘At the beginning of the decade the strategic attention was focused on self-managed learning, continuous personal development, learning organisation and the people messages associated with Total Quality Management (TQM). Walton (1999: 85). Nearly 15 years later many organisations are still working at getting this message across to a workforce that has not fully grasped the concept. The debate about turning strategy into practice remains an issue that continues to find its way into many Board rooms and commented on by many and varied management writers. However, because SHRD has taken a holistic view, fully integrated into the organisational management strategy, is that all that is needed for HRD to become SHRD. Wilson (1999) argues that HRD will deal with detail whilst modern SHRD should do no more than provide a framework for guidance, a point touched on by Mayo, ‘ †¦the task for HQ†¦is to determine the frameworks of best practice which will enable diverse and locally owned implementation, and to provide consultant help built round the local need,’ putting the view that organisations operate better when decentralised and given there own accountability and responsibly. It is clear in this scenario that anything other than a SHRD framework would be difficult to implement. An example of such a framework maybe, ‘a successful learning climate’ Walton (1999: 11) Conclusion Over the last decade, the role of HRD has both, found a niche and come under fire in organisations trying to compete in an ever changing political, economic and cultural environment. Add globalisation, demographic changes and the ever changing world of information technology (IT) and not surprisingly, HRD has had to both adapt and show direction in its approach and function in modern organisations. Balancing between both an art and a science it has had to prove its value to organisations in what ironically is the very environment it should be showing its main worth – managing the human resource in a world of constant change in compressed markets. The struggle of organisations to produce strategy in Tom Peters world of innovation and creativity, often results in the crisis, tactical, and short term approach taken by many organisations that often goes on to see HRD as the first enemy target of this struggle. The need for definition and justification for a HRD component remains more real today than at any time if it is not to been see as a luxury component in a volatile world that, arguably under pressure, relies more on economic stability than a humanistic resource development approach that often produces results beyond a strategic planning horizon. However, HRD is not a science, and as such will continue to change, develop and find new roles in the adapting, fast moving world of the modern working environment.